Abstract
Medical and pathology records from 161 critically endangered Livingstone’s fruit bats (Pteropus livingstonii, LFB) held at Jersey Zoo and Bristol Zoo between 1992 and 2017, representing over 95% of the total captive population, were examined. Four hundred twenty-seven individual medical problems were identified in 56% of the population. The association of mortality and morbidity in relation to age (neonates: 0–14 days; juveniles: 15 days–2.5 years; adults: 2.5 years–15 years; geriatric: 15 years) and gender were analysed. The most common causes of morbidity were wounds (34.9%, n=150), localized inflammation (12.9%, n=55) and fractures (10.8%, n=46). Wounds were predominantly located in the patagium (25%, n=38) and digits (22%, n=33) of the forelimbs. Males had a greater risk of injuries than females, and neonates and juveniles were more likely injured than adult and geriatric animals. Localized inflammatory lesions showed an increased risk associated with age. Females were found to be more likely to suffer from fractures. Eighty-eight deaths were recorded; the most common identified causes of mortality were abortion (18.2%, n=16), cardiac pathology (14.8%, n=13) and conspecific aggression (10.2%, n=9). Males and geriatric animals had a greater risk of suffering cardiac disease. A detailed breakdown of morbidity and mortality is presented in Tables 1 and 2. The aim of this study was to present the most common medical problems encountered in LFBs kept in captivity and establish a baseline for additional research into specific pathologies in this species.
Table 1. Causes of morbidity by age class and gender, total number of cases and percentage within each category are presented.
|
Morbidity category
|
Age class
|
Gender
|
Total
|
|
Neonates
|
Juveniles
|
Adults
|
Geriatrics
|
Males
|
Females
|
|
Abdominal hernia
|
|
|
1 (0.4%)
|
1 (0.7%)
|
|
2 (1.35%)
|
2 (0.5%)
|
|
Abscess
|
|
2 (5.7%)
|
2 (0.8%)
|
2 (1.35%)
|
2 (0.7%)
|
4 (2.7%)
|
6 (1.4%)
|
|
Anaemia
|
|
|
1 (0.4%)
|
|
1 (0.4%)
|
|
1 (0.2%)
|
|
Arthritis
|
|
|
8 (3.3%)
|
19 (12.8%)
|
20 (7.2%)
|
7 (4.7%)
|
27 (6.3%)
|
|
Bacterial pleuritis
|
|
|
|
1 (0.7%)
|
|
1 (0.7%)
|
1 (0.2%)
|
|
Cardiac disease
|
|
1 (2.9%)
|
6 (2.5%)
|
8 (5.4%)
|
14 (5.0%)
|
1 (0.7%)
|
15 (3.5%)
|
|
Onychopathy
|
|
2 (5.7%)
|
13 (5.4%)
|
6 (4.05%)
|
12 (4.3%)
|
9 (6.1%)
|
21 (4.9%)
|
|
Dental pathology
|
|
2 (5.7%)
|
8 (3.3%)
|
19 (12.8%)
|
15 (5.4%)
|
14 (9.5%)
|
29 (6.8%)
|
|
Dermatitis
|
|
1 (2.9%)
|
17 (7.0%)
|
12 (8.1%)
|
26 (9.3%)
|
4 (2.7%)
|
30 (7.0%)
|
|
Dystocia
|
|
|
2 (0.8%)
|
|
|
2 (1.35%)
|
2 (0.5%)
|
|
Fracture
|
|
6 (17.14%)
|
30 (12.45%)
|
10 (6.8%)
|
26 (9.3%)
|
20 (13.5%)
|
46 (10.8%)
|
|
Hypothyroidism
|
|
1 (2.9%)
|
|
|
|
1 (0.7%)
|
1 (0.2%)
|
|
Localized inflammation
|
|
1 (2.9%)
|
30 (12.45%)
|
24 (16.2%)
|
32 (11.5%)
|
23 (15.5%)
|
55 (12.9%)
|
|
Luxation
|
|
|
8 (3.3%)
|
6 (4.05%)
|
10 (3.6%)
|
4 (2.7%)
|
14 (3.3%)
|
|
Nasal discharge
|
|
|
3 (1.2%)
|
|
3 (1.1%)
|
|
3 (0.7%)
|
|
Neoplasia
|
|
|
2 (0.8%)
|
1 (0.7%)
|
2 (0.7%)
|
1 (0.7%)
|
3 (0.7%)
|
|
Ocular pathology
|
|
|
5 (2.1%)
|
1 (0.7%)
|
3 (1.1%)
|
3 (2.0%)
|
6 (1.4%)
|
|
Paraplegia
|
|
|
2 (0.8%)
|
|
2 (0.7%)
|
|
2 (0.5%)
|
|
Peritonitis
|
|
1 (2.9%)
|
|
|
|
1 (0.7%)
|
1 (0.2%)
|
|
Pneumonia
|
|
|
1 (0.4%)
|
|
|
1 (0.7%)
|
1 (0.2%)
|
|
Rectal prolapse
|
|
|
|
1 (0.7%)
|
1 (0.4%)
|
|
1 (0.2%)
|
|
Renal failure
|
|
|
|
2 (1.35%)
|
2 (0.7%)
|
|
2 (0.5%)
|
|
Steatitis
|
|
|
1 (0.4%)
|
3 (2.0%)
|
3 (1.1%)
|
1 (0.7%)
|
4 (0.9%)
|
|
Tick
|
|
1 (2.9%)
|
1 (0.4%)
|
1 (0.7%)
|
1 (0.4%)
|
2 (1.35%)
|
3 (0.7%)
|
|
Vaginal discharge
|
|
|
2 (0.8%)
|
|
|
2 (1.35%)
|
2 (0.5%)
|
|
Wound
|
3 (100%)
|
17 (48.6%)
|
99 (40.7%)
|
31 (20.95%)
|
105 (37.3%)
|
45 (30.4%)
|
150 (34.9%)
|
|
Total
|
3 (0.7%)
|
35 (8.2%)
|
241 (56.4%)
|
148 (34.6%)
|
279 (65.3%)
|
148 (34.7%)
|
427
|
Table 2. Causes of mortality by age class and gender, total number of cases and percentage within each category are presented.
|
Causes of death by age
|
Age class
|
Gender
|
Total
|
|
Neonates
|
Juveniles
|
Adults
|
Geriatrics
|
Males
|
Females
|
Undetermined
|
|
Abortion
|
N/A
|
N/A
|
N/A
|
N/A
|
6 (13.95%)
|
2 (7.4%)
|
8 (44.4%)
|
16 (18.2%)
|
|
Degenerative joint disease
|
|
1 (6.7%)
|
1 (5.6%)
|
5 (22.7%)
|
4 (9.3%)
|
3 (11.1%)
|
|
7 (7.95%)
|
|
Cardiopathy
|
|
1 (6.7%)
|
4 (22.2%)
|
8 (36.4%)
|
12 (27.9%)
|
1 (3.7%)
|
|
13 (14.8%)
|
|
Conspecific aggression
|
7 (41.2%)
|
1 (6.7%)
|
|
1 (4.55%)
|
3 (7.0%)
|
2 (7.4%)
|
4 (22.2%)
|
9 (10.2%)
|
|
Fungal encephalitis
|
|
|
|
1 (4.55%)
|
|
1 (3.7%)
|
|
1 (1.1%)
|
|
Hypothyroidism
|
|
1 (6.7%)
|
|
|
|
1 (3.7%)
|
|
1 (1.1%)
|
|
Neoplasia
|
|
|
1 (5.6%)
|
1 (4.55%)
|
1 (2.3%)
|
1 (3.7%)
|
|
2 (2.3%)
|
|
Peritonitis
|
|
1 (6.7%)
|
|
|
|
1 (3.7%)
|
|
1 (1.1%)
|
|
Pneumonia
|
1 (5.9%)
|
|
|
|
|
|
1 (5.6%)
|
1 (1.1%)
|
|
Renal failure
|
|
|
|
2 (9.1%)
|
2 (4.65%)
|
|
|
2 (2.3%)
|
|
Septicemia
|
|
1 (6.7%)
|
3 (16.7%)
|
2 (9.1%)
|
3 (7.0%)
|
3 (11.1%)
|
|
6 (6.8%)
|
|
Starvation/maternal neglect
|
3 (17.65%)
|
1 (6.7%)
|
|
|
2 (4.65%)
|
2 (7.4%)
|
|
4 (4.55%)
|
|
Trauma
|
2 (11.8%)
|
1 (6.7%)
|
4 (22.2%)
|
1 (4.55%)
|
2 (4.65%)
|
4 (14.8%)
|
2 (11.1%)
|
8 (9.1%)
|
|
Undetermined
|
4 (23.5%)
|
7 (46.7%)
|
5 (27.8%)
|
1 (4.55%)
|
8 (18.6%)
|
6 (22.2%)
|
3 (16.7%)
|
17 (19.3%)
|
|
Total
|
17 (19.3%)
|
15 (17.05%)
|
18 (20.4%)
|
22 (25.0%)
|
43 (48.9%)
|
27 (30.7%)
|
18 (20.4%)
|
88
|
N/A=Non-applicable