Abstract
There are several reports about dystocia and its treatment in elephants maintained in captivity in western zoos and safari parks.1-10 In the last 2 yr, there has been a dramatic accumulation of reports about birth-associated problems (Table 1). Causes for this development are probably the intensified captive elephant breeding programs and the involvement of more older nulliparous cows.
Over the last 100 yr, there were more dystocia cases in captive Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) than in African elephants (Loxodonta africana).7 However, this difference seems to be abolished with the increasing number of pregnancies in African elephants to date. Increased percentage of dystocia cases in both species can have two consequences for captive management. First, older nulliparous cows will be strictly excluded from breeding in the future or second, management of the birth process will be improved.
Three of 10 cows died from the consequences of dystocia in western zoological institutions over the last 2 yr (Table 1). In total, there were eleven cases of fatal dystocia listed in the literature since 1972 (Table 2).5-7 Seven cesarians performed (Table 2) as the ultimate intervention to treat dystocia in elephants all ended with euthanasia or death of the females.
Table 1. Dystocia cases in captive elephants in the last 2 yr
|
Dam year of birth
Reproductive status
|
Cont.#
Stud.#
|
Institution
|
Date of birth/Dystocia
|
Body mass (sex)
Remarks
|
|
1983
Nulliparous
|
EMa 1
258
|
Burnet Park Zoo, NY, USA
|
06 June 2001
|
Data not accessible.b
Calf was stillborn with several health problems; dam survived.
|
|
1982
Nulliparous
|
EM 2
8209
|
Whipsnade, UK
|
01 March 2002
|
Data not available.c
After intensive labor, calf was not expelled; treated dam survived.
|
|
1967
Multiparous
|
EM 3
80
|
Fort Worth Zoological Park, TX, USA
|
13 March 2002
|
Data not accessible.b
Treated dystocia, calf was stillborn; dam survived.
|
|
1982
Nulliparous
|
EM 4
8216
|
Whipsnade, UK
|
22 June 2002
|
120 kg (male)
Episiotomy with fetotomy; treated dam died 12 days later.
|
|
1974
Nulliparous
|
EM 5
335
|
Riddle's Elephant Breeding Farm & Wildlife Sanctuary, AR, USA
|
29 Jan 2003
|
170 kg (Gender data not accessible.)
After intensive labor calf was not expelled; treated dam died 18 days later.
|
|
1968
Nulliparous
|
LAd 1
65
|
Kansas City Zoological Gardens, MO, USA
|
19 Sept 2001
|
Data not available.c
Calf was not expelled; treated dam survived.
|
|
1981
Nulliparous
|
LA 2
210
|
Toledo Zoological Gardens, OH, USA
|
27 July 2002
|
Data not accessible.b
Stuck in the caudal part of the vestibule; dam survived.
|
|
1978
Nulliparous
|
LA3
371
|
Six Flagg, CA, USA
|
01 Oct 2002
|
118 kg (female)
Calf was not expelled; treated dam was euthanatized 56 days later.
|
|
1983
Nulliparous
|
LA 4
389
|
Six Flagg, CA USA
|
21 March 2003
|
127 kg (Gender data not accessible.)
Calf was stillborn; dam survived.
|
|
1970
Nulliparous
|
LA 5
92
|
Disney's Animal Kingdom, OR, USA
|
06 April 2003
|
Data not available.c
Calf was not expelled.
|
aElephas maximus.
bData were not accessible for the authors when abstract was submitted.
cData not available because of the intrauterine fetus.
dLoxodonta africana.
Table 2. Known dystocia cases with a fatal outcome for the dam
|
Dam year of birth
Reproductive status
|
Cont.#
Stud.#
|
Institution
|
Date of birth/dystocia
|
Body mass (sex)
Remarks
|
|
1939a
Pluriparous
|
EMb I
|
Mysore Zoo, India
|
1972
|
Data not accessible.c
Cesarian; dam died few hours later.
|
|
1963a
Nulliparous
|
EM II
|
Charkow Zoo, Ukraine, GUS
|
29 April 1979
|
Data not accessible.c
Dam died during birth because macerated placenta and septic endometritis.
|
|
1970a
Nulliparous
|
EM III
|
San Diego, CA, USA
|
20 Nov 1989
|
159 kg (male)
Cesarian; dam died 11 days later.
|
|
1957a
Nulliparous
|
EM IV
|
Burnet Park Zoo, NY, USA
|
23 May 1990
|
120 kg (male)
Episiotomy continued with cesarian; dam died 19 days later.
|
|
1964a
Nulliparous
|
EM V
|
Dickerson Park Zoo, Springfield, MO, USA
|
07 Sept 1992
|
95 kg (male)
Episiotomy continued with cesarian; dam euthanatized after surgery.
|
|
1968a
Nulliparous
|
EM VI
|
Port Lympne, UK
|
11 June 1993
|
103 kg (male)
First classic dystocia treatment; 10 days later a cesarian was performed; dam died 13 days after surgery.
|
|
1966a
Pluriparous
|
EM VII
|
Metro Zoo Miami (Ringling-Station-Williston), FL, USA
|
May 1996
|
Data not accessible.c
Episiotomy continued with cesarian; placental strangulation; euthanasia of the dam after surgery
|
|
1969
Nulliparous
|
EM VIII
|
Phoenix Zoo, AR, USA
|
Nov 1998
|
120 kg (female)
Episiotomy unsuccessful; cesarian performed 10 days later; dam euthanatized during surgery.
|
|
1982
Nulliparous
|
EM 4
8216
|
Whipsnade, UK
|
22 June 2002
|
120 kg (male)
Episiotomy with fetotomy treated; dam died 12 days later.
|
|
1974
Nulliparous
|
EMS
335
|
Riddle's Elephant Breeding Farm & Wildlife Sanctuary, AR, USA
|
29 Jan 2003
|
170 kg (Data on gender not accessible.)
After intensive labor, calf was not expelled; treated dam died 18 days later.
|
|
1978
Nulliparous
|
LAd 3
371
|
Six Flagg, CA, USA
|
01 Oct 2002
|
118 kg (female)
Calf was not expelled; treated dam was euthanatized 56 days later.
|
aApproximate year of birth.
bElephas maximus.
cData were not accessible for the authors when abstract was submitted.
dLoxodonta africana.
This paper describes a potential new way of birth management in the elephant, the fetotomy. The authors believe that the fetotomy is prospective tool that could be used to save the life of a dam with severe dystocia. This method is recommended by the authors as an ultimate tool besides all the other important preparations in pregnant cows for an upcoming birth. Most important classic preparations are the following: 1) intensive physical exercise, 2) optimization of body weight with a pregnancy-associated diet, and 3) training for safe handling in case of necessary intervention in free or protected contact. The fetotomy was never applied before in elephants because of the limited exploration field and the high degree of skeleton calcification in comparison to domestic and exotic hoofstock.
In this particular case, it was first tried to remove the dead fetus by episiotomy.2-4.7,9,10 However, the episiotomy attempt failed due to the inability to extract a dead oversized or malpositioned fetus. From the two options to leave the dead fetus inside the uterus despite the surgically opened genital tract or to cut out parts of the fetus, it was decided to perform a fetotomy. The initial hesitation to perform such drastic and complicated procedure led to the complication of an emphysemic fetus and progressive peritonitis in the female, even before the procedure started. The fetus was successfully removed in six parts using an extra-long and durable carthorse embryotome (Thygesen's type). Unfortunately, the patient died 3 days later because of the treatment-resistant peritonitis.
In conclusion, it was demonstrated that fetotomy can successfully be applied in elephants. The authors suggested in order to achieve a positive outcome for the dam to decide on such ultimate intervention earlier in the dystocia process. Active elephant birth management should always include preparation for dystocia treatment ranging from 1) the administration of oxytocin, 2) rectal massage of the caudal birth channel, 3) episiotomy as the last option, and 4) fetotomy to save the life of the mother. Based on the complex preparation for an elephant birth and the knowledge about the huge range of potential complications, it is advised to consult veterinary elephant specialists well in advance to ensure maximum expertise and experience.
Acknowledgments
The authors like to thank Charlie Gray who helped us to collect the relevant data from the dystocia cases and the elephant staff from Whipsnade Wild Animal Park for their active support. We also like to acknowledge Professor Peter Glatzel, DVM and Andrea Krause for helping with the logistic preparation.
Literature Cited
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