Introduction

Parents intuitively introduce pets not only as companions for children, but also as teachers - to encourage the development of empathy, responsibility, parenting skills and to introduce children to lifecycles, including death and bereavement. However, it is only in the last 40 years' that human-animal interactions have been the subject of scientific scrutiny.

Child Development

Levinson, the first clinician to formally introduce companion animals to his therapy sessions in the 1950s, strongly advocated that children have contact with companion animals, especially children living in residential settings. Levinson termed his therapeutic approach 'pet facilitated therapy' and referred to his animal aides as 'co-therapists'. He particularly recommended the technique for children who are young and non-verbal; inhibited; autistic; withdrawn; obsessive compulsive; or culturally disadvantaged.

He described how animals help children to accomplish the developmental tasks of childhood to acquire:

 Trust and self-esteem

 Responsibility and competence

 Feelings of empathy with others

 Autonomy

Companion animals provide:

 Opportunities for giving and receiving nurture

 Unconditional, non-judgmental affection and regard

 Tactile comfort

 Fun, laughter and spontaneity

With pets the child has no fear of rejection and the animal acts as a social lubricant, facilitating relationships with others.

A growing body of research demonstrates health, social and educational benefits for children through what is now termed animal-assisted interventions (AAI). Most children are fascinated by animals and this appears to be an innate mechanism associated with improved survival termed biophilia.

The high level of social support derived from animals has advantages compared to support from humans. It is:

 Unconditional

 Always accessible

 Wholly confidential

 Unambiguous

 Non-reciprocal

And the pet caregiver will never burn out.

Studies and anecdotal reports document benefits when autistic children interact with pets. They may find animals more interesting and less threatening than people. However, elevated levels of oxytocin arising from human-animal interactions may account for their observed increased competency and prosocial behaviours. Oxytocin stimulates social interaction and promotes bonding by increasing trust, improved ability to interpret social cues and by reducing anxiety. Autistic children have low circulating oxytocin levels and have better social skills following intranasal administration of oxytocin.

Caring for pets encourages the development of empathy. Children spend more time caring for pets than caring for siblings and pet care is gender neutral - providing boys with an acceptable and readily available opportunity to learn to nurture. Caring for pets may also attune children to animal welfare and nature conservation. Although most children are gentle with pets, some are abusive. Such behaviour may be associated with serious emotional problems, sometimes signalling a child suffering abuse. Children who abuse, torture or kill animals should be referred to a child psychiatrist for comprehensive evaluation. Empathy programmes have been developed to help such children. Failure to intervene may result in escalation of the behaviour, possibly leading to violent aggression towards people.

For most young children the passing of a pet is their first encounter with death. Parents, teachers and therapists should know how to support children at this difficult time. The Pet Bereavement Support Service has specialist information. Companion animals can help support and protect children through their teenage years. At a time when human relationships are in a state of flux, that with their pet remains constant. Youths who have a bond with a dog tend to avoid risk - are less likely to join a gang, commit crime or take drugs and are more likely to respect parents, hold traditional values and value education.

Dog training programmes can be effective in addressing offending behaviours and reducing recidivism.

The importance of a child-pet bond should not be underestimated. In families experiencing divorce/separation children suffer fewer long-term negative consequences if they can keep their pets. When families flee domestic violence children should keep their pets or be reunited with them as soon as possible. Pet fostering services to support these families now cover most of the UK.

Animals in Schools

AAI school programmes and educational curricula have been developed for children with special needs and for those that are normally developing. Of particular note is Green Chimneys, a residential school for emotionally traumatised children founded over 60 years ago in New York State. This is a model programme of international importance. Animals are central to the therapeutic milieu and are instrumental in the rehabilitation of the children. The children receive nurture and unconditional acceptance from their animals in which they often confide their deepest fears before sharing these with therapists. Through learning to care for the animals they learn vital parenting skills.

School pets have been found to:

 Motivate pupils to think and learn

 Improve academic achievement

 Encourage reverence for life

 Foster responsibility

 Improve interpersonal relationships

 Teach children to care

 Lead to animal-related hobbies and careers

Animals also generate lessons that are interesting, memorable and lively and which offer cross-curricular links.

Teachers report therapeutic benefits for children with special needs:

 Calming effect

 Improved behaviour and cooperation

 Extended concentration

 Lowered stress

 Activation of withdrawn children

These findings are in accord with the presenter's experience of teaching about and working with animals in schools, with infants through to seniors and with at-risk youth and prisoners. During animal-assisted lessons pupils become more focused and centred. Even children who are usually taught separately can participate. The calming effect is contrary to most teachers' expectations and leads to a quieter, more attentive class and greater productivity. Animal topics create a high level of interest and generate a high standard of work. Teachers report improved attention span in children with autism, Downs' syndrome and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The effect of animals to calm pupils whilst also engaging and motivating them has led to the introduction of planned AAI programmes targeting children with special needs. For example, dog-assisted reading programmes to improve literacy skills, and pet-care programmes for autistic children. School pets also foster a sense of community resulting in less conflict, truancy and vandalism.

Humane Education

For greatest effect animal-related education should be delivered as humane education, a values education in which children are encouraged to develop empathy and understanding for others - other people, animals, plants and our shared environment. Children who develop empathy with animals generally have higher empathy to humans. As the needs of children and animals are broadly similar the teaching of comparative health and safety provides an absorbing, non-threatening and memorable way to instruct children in preventive medicine (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Comparative preventive medicine and safety topics.

 Nutrition

 Vaccination

 Parasite control

 Birth control

 Sexual health

 Weight management

 Exercise

 Dental care

 Tobacco, drugs and alcohol

 Hygiene

 Road safety

 Stranger danger

 Behaviour

 Bite prevention

 Poisons

 Water safety

Lessons about dog bite prevention are especially well received by teachers. Comparative health teaching fascinates children and provides important insights to self care.

Implementation of Education Programmes

Although the benefits of AAI and humane education are documented, the current implementation rate of such schools programmes is disappointing. The introduction of guidelines and standards of practice for AAI will help to ensure safe practice and encourage more programmes. Teacher training would lead to higher implementation. The International Association of Human-Animal Interaction Organisations (IAHAIO) has published a series of resolutions calling upon local and national governments to introduce AAI training and programmes. The work of IAHAIO is recognised by the World Health Organization (WHO), and IAHAIO was accorded Working Partner status with WHO within a few years of its inauguration.

Animal-related education curricula have been developed principally by veterinary organisations and animal welfare groups and are an excellent resource. Lessons should be focused - i.e., covering the issues most relevant to a particular community and targeted at the most deserving pupils: children with learning disabilities; those experiencing crises; those with behavioural problems; at-risk youth; and those in inner city schools. In the UK several charities recruit volunteers with suitable dogs to visit schools and deliver lessons about animals, e.g., The Blue Cross, Pets as Therapy and Therapet.

The Role of Veterinarians

Throughout the world individual veterinarians and veterinary organisations are providing leadership, collaborating with others to advance understanding of the human-animal bond, an important aspect of One Health. Through deeper understanding of this powerful bond veterinarians gain a better understanding of clients and their relationships with their animals. We need to understand the role of animals in child development and for the maintenance of well being for people of all ages. Only then can we deliver best practice - to our clients, our patients and our communities. As part of our corporate social responsibility we can work with colleagues from the other health and social care professions to introduce carefully planned AAI programmes to institutions, including schools, prisons, day centres, hospitals and hospices. Veterinary involvement is essential for appropriate animal selection; protocols and care plans; advising on suitable interactions; and monitoring animal health and welfare. Veterinary input helps to ensure that maximum benefit is achieved, whilst minimising any risks. Programmes have been developed to help diverse client groups and many of society's most pressing social problems can also be addressed through AAI programmes. Our professional bodies should actively encourage governments to implement the IAHAIO resolutions to achieve fiscal savings whilst improving health and welfare.

References

1.  Bustad L. Compassion: Our Last Great Hope. Renton, Washington: Delta Society, 1990.

2.  Levinson B, Mallon G. Pet-Oriented Child Psychotherapy. Springfield, IL: Charles Thomas, 1997.

3.  Melson G. Why the Wild Things Are: Animals in the Lives of Children. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001.

4.  Society for Companion Animal Studies (SCAS). Children and Pets: A Guide for Parents, Teachers and Therapists. SCAS, 2003.

5.  The IAHAIO Resolutions: www.iahaio.org